Reading Assignment Instructions

Reading assignment rubrics is the first step in any successful writing project. Rubrics are like road maps, and they clarify what your professor expects you to write in your assignment. The assignment rubric has many points which need to be considered before starting your writing. This handout will help you understand your assignment competently and begin to draft an effective response. It will address typical assignment terms and guide you to practice how to apply them effectively to your writing.  

What is an assignment Rubric? 

Many assignment guidelines follow a basic format. A typical one starts with providing a context for the students, following by setting the writing goals or clarifying the writing expectations and ending with evaluative criteria. These three main components of an assignment guideline will be explained as follows: 

The Overview of the Assignment 

Assignment guidelines often begin with an overview of the topic. The overview gives some general discussion and background knowledge of the subject of the assignment.  In this part of the assignment rubric, professors will be able to introduce the topic briefly or remind you of something relevant that you discussed in class.  

The Task of the Assignment 

The overview section is followed by providing some prompts using a verb or verbs such as evaluate, summarize, argue, etc., to describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions or questions to get you started. The order of questions sometimes suggests the thinking process you will need to follow to begin the topic. Identifying these prompts and understanding their definitions will direct you to think about the topic in a certain way that your professor expects you to do so. (The prompts with their definitions are listed below.) 

Grading Rubric 

The last section of an assignment rubric might include its grading rubrics which provide explicit information about how the writing assignment will be evaluated. For help with this, see our handout on What Is a Grading Rubric. 

The prompts 

Here are some common keywords or prompts with their definitions to help you think about assignment key terms: 

Information Prompts 
Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why. 

• Identify – pick out what you regard as the key features of something, perhaps making clear the criteria you use 

• Define—give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning 

• Describe—provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell) 

• Explain—give reasons why or examples of how something happened 

• Illustrate—give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject 

• Summarize—briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject 

• Trace—outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form 

• Research—gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found 

Relation Prompts 
Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected. 

• Compare—show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different) 

• Contrast; Distinguish—show how two or more things are dissimilar 

• Apply—use details that you’ve been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation 

• Cause—show how one event or series of events made something else happen 

• Relate—show or describe the connections between things 

• Comment— Identify and write about the main issues; give your reactions based on what you’ve read/heard in lectures. Avoid opinions.  

Interpretation Prompts 
Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation. 

• Assess—summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something 

• Prove; Justify—give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth 

• Evaluate; Respond—state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons 

• Support—give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe) 

• Synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper 

• Analyze—determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important 

• Argue—take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side 

Interpreting the assignment rubric 

Before starting to write and while reading the assignment rubrics, you can ask yourself few basic questions to help you understand why you are expected to write this project and how to achieve it. The questions might be as below: 

• Why did your instructor ask you to do this task? 

• Who is your audience? 

• What kind of writing style is acceptable? 

• What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas? 

• What should you avoid? 

Why did your instructor ask you to do this task? 

There might be some reasons that your instructor gives you this assignment. One reason is to assess your understanding of the course material at a particular point in the semester and to give you a grade on what you have learned. However, your instructor wants you to reflect on the topic in a particular way to make sure you have your own specific takeaways and are prepared for experiencing the next steps of learning journey.  

Who is your audience? 

It is good to think of your audience as someone smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not necessarily someone with background knowledge about the topic. 

What kind of writing style is acceptable? 

Accordingly, keeping in mind your audience, you will make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey in your writing. Tone means the “voice” of your paper. Should you be colloquial, formal, or objective? And similarly, the level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. Also, it is important to think about the kind of writing style, which is acceptable for your assignment, and is what your instructor expects. 1 For specific help with style, see department specific Style Guides. 

What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas? 

There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will be good enough for your assignment can depend on several factors–the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor’s preference.  Evidence is the facts, examples, or sources used to support a claim. For example, in the sciences, this might be data retrieved from an experiment or a scientific journal article. In the humanities, it may be a quotation from the text, published information from academic critics, or a theory that supports your claims. So, evidence supports your claim, making it more concrete than it would be alone. It is important to use evidence effectively which means integrating it well and analyzing it in a way that relates to your argument clearly and logically. For help with finding credible and effective evidence, visit the Research Help desk at the Patrick Power Library. 2

What should you avoid? 

When it comes to writing an academic assignment, there are a few things that you should avoid doing if you want to get the best possible grade.  

1. Reading the question incorrectly  

One of the most common mistakes students make is not reading the task correctly and thoroughly. This often leads to answering a different question than the one asked. So, make sure you understand what it asks before beginning to write your answer. If the question asks you to talk about a specific topic, make sure you answer that question and do not deviate from it, as it is essential to stay on the topic as much as possible, otherwise, your work may be marked down accordingly. 

2. Writing too much or too little 

Another common mistake students make is writing either too much or too little. Writing an academic assignment, you need to make sure you stick to the word limit that professors expect and provide only the relevant information. 

3. Citing sources incorrectly 

When you use information from other sources in your assignment, you must cite them properly. If you do not cite your sources correctly, you could be accused of plagiarism. Resources on using sources can be found at the Writing Centre and  Patrick Power Library. 

4. Failing to proofread your work 

Another common mistake among students is failing to proofread their work. This often leads to incorrect grammar, spelling errors, incoherent and incohesive paragraphs, and incorrect citation. Make sure you read your assignment several times and check for all these mistakes before submitting it. You can also go through your writing drafts with a writing tutor at the Writing Centre to make sure you have not missed any points.  

5. Following instructions incorrectly 

In most academic writings, several instructions direct you to the specific expectations and show you how the writing goals for the assignment should be achieved and what needs to be done. So, make sure to follow the instructions carefully not to miss out on any important points for your assignment. 

6. Generalizing and asking assumptions 

Making irrelevant or unnecessary assumptions and generalizations is another common mistake among students. Keep in mind to stick to the facts only and avoid any speculations to succeed (unless you are asked to do so). 3 

Conclusion 

Critical reading of assignment rubrics helps you with other types of reading and writing projects. If you get good at figuring out what the goals of assignments are, you will be better at understanding the goals of your classes and your fields of study. 

Once you have broken down and understood your assignment question, you can start to organize your research and ideas, note them down and specify what claims you want to argue in your essay. For help with the ways to get started, see our handouts on Essay Outline & How to Write a Paper 

Bibliography  

Too, Gen. “10 Mistakes That Can Spoil Your Academic Assignment.” (2021, December 15).  https://kifarunix.com/10-mistakes-that-can-spoil-your-academic-assignment/  (accessed 2 July 2022) 

The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. “Understanding Assignments.”  

https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/understanding-assignments/  (accessed 2 July 2022) 

University of Guelph.” Write Clearly: Using Evidence Effectively.” 

https://guides.lib.uoguelph.ca/UseEvidenceEffectively (accessed 2 July 2022) 

Understanding Feedback to Improve Your Writing

Corrections, criticisms, and questions that you find on a graded paper or other assignments can be one of the most useful contributions a professor or teaching assistant offers you in your classes. Instead of regarding these notes on your work as a sign of failure or something to be avoided and left unread, they can be instructive and can be incorporated into your future work. After all, a teacher invests time into your writing, not principally to assign you a grade, but to point out where you can develop a as reader, thinker, and writer. 

How can you incorporate grading comments into your future work? First pay attention to the kind of notes made on your corrected work, since each kind leads you to develop in a different way. Four kinds of grading notes will be described below, along with suggestions about how they can transform your work:  

1. proofreading corrections,  

2. writing style critiques,  

3. topic-specific corrections,  

4. and questions. 

Proofreading Corrections 

Some of the simplest comments identify mistakes in spelling, punctuation, and grammar. While sometimes mistakes of this kind are simply typos (accidental mistakes), sometimes they occur from a lack of understanding and may be repeated in the future. These sorts of mistakes can be remedied by simple self-study through readily available resources in person, print, or online. 

Examples 

• Confused about commas and apostrophes? Consult a punctuation guide. 

• Frustrated by grammar and sentence structure? Review a grammar guide. 

• Unsure about spelling, such as centre vs. center? Consult a dictionary. 

• Did you use a word incorrectly? Compare the meaning of your word with a proposed alternative. 

Consider this example: 

Halifax Harbours depth and size, make it an ideal port, for the largest cargo barges and cruise liners. 

1. Above, Harbour is possessive, and so requires an apostrophe before the ‘s’. 

2. “For the largest” etc. In a subordinate clause and does not need to follow a comma 

3. A large seagoing vessel for carrying cargo is not a barge, but a ship 

A corrected sentence would read: 

Halifax Harbour’s depth and size, make it an ideal port for the largest cargo ships and cruise liners. 

Paying attention in these little matters can have a large payoff, because if you keep note of what small mistakes you should avoid in the future, you can keep your work clear of errors that distract your reader (and marker!) from the very points you are trying to communicate. 

Once you have identified your mistakes and taken the time to learn how to correct them, you can double-check to see if you can find and correct similar mistakes in your paper. After all, a grader might not highlight or catch all of them, especially if they are numerous. However, by putting your new knowledge to the test, you can solidify you own skills for your future work.

Writing-style Critique 

 It is possible escape any errors in grammar and spelling and still leave your reader wondering what you meant to say. You may have seen the word “awkward” or “awk.” if your writing is difficult to read, or “unclear” if your message is uncertain. Sometimes readers might also ask if you meant to say something else. Such comments require taking a close look at the troublesome sentence. Your reader might identify the problem, but if not, read it aloud to look for the problem.  

Examples 

• Did you place subordinate clauses (“since…”, “when…”, “which…”) in way that obscured the connection to the rest of the sentence? 

• Were your pronouns’ antecedents (the nouns they are replacing) unclear? 

• If there is more than one subject of the sentence, are they clearly distinguished? 

• Is your sentence so long that it becomes unclear? 

• Does the sentence seem to have no explicit connection to anything other sentence around it? 

• If you reader proposed what they thought you meant, does it match your intended meaning? 

Keep a list of what made your writing hard to read or unable to communicate your meaning. How? Just ask why my writing was unclear or awkward—then add a “do not” to the answer and do the opposite! You will build up list of tips of what to avoid and what do. If you do not overuse demonstrative pronouns (“this”, “that”), do use concrete (?) nouns. Remember, you goal in writing is to communicate your ideas. Even the most brilliant idea, confusedly communicated, is unlikely to be received. 

Topic Specific Corrections 

Even when you do communicate your ideas clearly, you might find some red ink if your reader offers corrections related to the topic. Your reader is a specialist in the topic and may find mistakes or misunderstanding in your writings. 

Examples 

• Did you interpret data or arguments from your source material incorrectly, or misread your source? 

• Did you omit of key details of your subject? 

• Was the question your set out to answer unanswered? 

Such corrections present an opportunity to help you understand your subject better. Often, they point out where you should go back to your sources and reread them. If you find yourself confused about the corrections, you should approach your reader and ask for clarification. Raising questions with your professors is another way your can learn from them and begin to gain a mastery of your chosen subjects. After all, what are university subjects except asking questions? 

Engaging Questions 

Questions are not a one-way street. One last kind of red ink you might find on your writing is a question from your professor about your argument. This is often the highest level of engagement from your professor, inviting you to think about your topic in a deeper (more detailed) way or from another perspective to help you refine or strengthen your argument or guide you to a more tenable thesis. 

Examples 

• Did your professor present an alternative reading of your sources?  

• Is additional information provided that supports your argument or presents an opportunity to develop it? 

• Did your reader propose an implication of your argument that you did not develop? 

Discussion or dialectic is among the highest form of communication because it offers an opportunity to refine our understanding of a subject, understand multiple perspectives, and help us become more careful and nuanced thinkers. 

Grading Rubric

What is a rubric? 

A rubric is a grading guideline usually created by an instructor to follow in the student’s assessment of a specific assignment. Getting to know how your instructors will be assessing your assignment is the first step to a successful essay. One of the assessment tools that instructors might choose to apply in class is called Rubric. A rubric is a grading guideline usually created by an instructor to follow in the student’s assessment of a specific assignment. More recently, it has become an effective assessment tool to create clear communication between instructors and students. Therefore, learners can understand their instructor’s expectations for an assignment at the outset as well as fully comprehend the purpose and value of its components. 

Moreover, a rubric is a helpful tool to communicate detailed information about the assignment you are going to write; it is usually divided into several categories and covers all the requirements that an instructor can distinguish between the higher to the lower parts of the grading range. These categories might include the writing style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.), adequate documentation (articles, research, citations, etc.), topics that should be included, the policy on plagiarism, and/or any other information that an instructor may find necessary to share with the students. 

Why should I read a rubric?  

Reading your assessment rubric will help you understand what your instructor expects to see in your assignment; it will also help you to enhance your performance as you will be able to meet these expectations. Besides, you can monitor your progress and become aware of the quality of your work. Another reason for you to read your assessment rubric is that it will certainly enable you to understand your instructor’s feedback better, which can assist you in your improvements for the next assignment. 

How do I read a rubric? 

A rubric can be analytic (process-oriented) or holistic (product-oriented); it will depend on the instructor’s goals for the assignment. Analytic rubrics normally provide a consistent system to assess an assignment and are divided into three essential parts that will be presented below.  

Start reading your assessment rubric by checking the category descriptors which are usually on the left of the rubric’s table. The category descriptors indicate the elements that will be assessed in the assignment. In the example below, there are three elements in the category descriptors ‘organization and argumentation’, ‘source use’, and ‘typography and writing style’.  

After that, check the weighting criteria, which will show you how your performance will be assessed. The weighting criteria are usually placed on top of the rubric table where the performance is presented on a number scale, for instance, percentage %, numbers 1, 2, 3, or as you can see in the example below ‘excellent’, ‘good’, ‘acceptable’, etc. 

Finally, look for the definitions, they will reveal a detailed explanation of what can be achieved per category. Reading the definitions for each category will enable you to write an essay that will meet your instructor’s goals. 

In the below example you will read an analytic rubric. Can you identify the three parts presented above in this assessment rubric? 

Try to use a rubric as a checkpoint before handing in your next assignment!

Reflective Terms

Reflective writing requires you to explore your thoughts, ideas, and perspectives, consider how you think and engage with a subject, and analyze these thoughts. By exploring your understanding of yourself and your thinking processes, you are asked to make connections and communicate your learning and experiences. Below are terms to prompt you and help you communicate as you reflect.

Reflective Writing Terminology

Implication and Application	Examples:
Interpreting importance (While I learned much from…, the most meaningful insight I gained was…)	applicable, beneficial, challenging, helpful, important, informative, insightful, meaningful, pertinent, relevant, significant, useful
Specifying components (The aspect of my placement that was most relevant to… was…)	aspect, component, element, experience, idea, issue, module, part, portion, stage
Showing a progression of ideas or events over time (Prior to …, I had understood that… I have since learned that…)	after, afterward, again, also, and then, as long as, at first, at last, at that time, before, besides, earlier, eventually, finally, formerly, in the first place, in the past, initially, last, lately, later, meanwhile, next, now, presently, previously, prior to, second, shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still, subsequently, then, thereafter, too, until, until now, when
Expressing personal experiences and opinions (… provided a perspective that I had not considered before. I previously felt that… but now realise that…)	(did not) believe, consider, develop, expect, feel, gain, improve, know, learn, notice, question, realise, think, understand, wonder
Providing evidence or reasoning (My previous understanding of… was limited due to my…)	as a result of, because, causes, consequently, due to, ensures, explains, is proportional to, is related to, results in
Providing context for your reflection (Having immersed myself in… I consequently see that… I felt most engaged in…)	having analysed, applied, discussed, engaged, evaluated, experienced, immersed, learned, participated in, read
Expressing uncertainty (Although I cannot be certain that… it is likely that…)	am not yet certain about, am not yet confident about, could be, do not yet know, do not yet understand, indicates, is perhaps, is probably, is likely, may be seen as, might be, suggests

Exam Writing

General Exam Writing Tips ↓

1.Preview the exam. Set goals for time and pace yourself accordingly

Read over the questions. Take note of which questions seem easier and which look more difficult. Allocate time appropriately, considering the number of questions, the number of points they are worth, and the total time available. If you are given options, decide which questions you will be answering ahead of time.

2.Start with multiple choice.

If your exam is in multiple formats, answering multiple choice questions first can sometimes help jog your memory of key concepts or terms and can help inform longer-answer questions.

3.Start with easy questions.

Begin with questions pertaining to material you know well. Answering the easy questions first helps maximize your grade. It is also a good time management strategy, because you won’t waste time labouring over troublesome questions at the outset of the exam.

4.Recycle through the test.

After completing easy questions, return to the beginning of the exam and attempt those you could not do on the first pass. Sometimes the answer will occur to you simply because you are more relaxed after having answered other questions. Sometimes, too, clues in later questions can help you choose the best answer to questions earlier in the exam.

5.Read the questions carefully, twice if necessary.

Avoid jumping to conclusions about what you think the question asks.

Multiple Choice Exams ↓

Multiple Choice Exam Strategies:

1.Set goals for time and pace yourself accordingly.

Multiple choice questions are usually equally weighted, so set time limits for each question, and stick to them. Save a few minutes at the end for review and revision.

2.Circle or underline key words in questions.

Multiple choice tests examine your ability to read carefully and thoughtfully as much as they test your ability to recall and reason. Watch for words like all, always, never, none, few, many, some, sometimes.

3.Be wary of descriptive words which are overly exclusive or overly inclusive.

Words like always, never, completely, and only are absolutes. Relative words like often, usually, seem and may are often more accurate, as they allow for complexity and exceptions. Absolute terms tend to portray things as entirely right or wrong where this is often not the case.

4.Try to recall a concept from memory or think out the answer before looking at the options.

Doing this successfully may help you "wade through" the alternatives and find a reasonable answer.

5.Consider the true/false label strategy.

Label the alternative answers as true or false statements and then look for a pattern in the answers

6.Sometimes alternatives differ by only one or two words or in the order of one or two terms.

These can seem very confusing. It helps to read the question with each possible choice while covering up the others. By thinking through the alternatives, you may be able to make more sense of the options by labelling them true or false and eliminating those that don't correctly complete the question.

7.Be alert to terminology that links the alternatives or questions to key areas of the course, lectures, or chapters of a course's materials.

This may help you narrow the field of possible choices and think through to the best answer.

8.Translate double negative statements into positive ones.

Examples like "Not lacking" or "not none" become "having" and "some" and this can reduce confusion. Note that these are often partly in the stem and partly in the choices of a particular question.

9.Use the hint of highly similar pairs.

Often the answer is imbedded in one of two very similar answers and the "most correct" answer is often the one that correctly uses course terminology; consider the “all /none of the above” cues — if two of the preceding alternatives are opposites then one of them and the “all/none of the above” choice is also wrong.

10.Be prepared to change your answer.

Your first answer may not always be your best answer. Change answers, but only if you can identify a clear reason why your first response was incorrect. Do not simply make changes on the basis of nervous feelings.

11.Answer all the questions.

Never leave a multiple choice question unanswered. Provide your best guess for those questions that you have left blank. A guess may turn out to be correct, but an unanswered question will always receive a zero.

12.If you must guess, look for some of these possibilities:

the style of an answer option is very different from all of the others - this may disqualify it;

the grammar of the question stem is not in agreement with the grammar of an alternative;

some alternative is not in the area or topic of the question, but comes from some other part of the course- this may disqualify it.

Overall, remember that you are looking for the best answer, not one that is merely correct, and not one which must be true all of the time, in all cases, and without exception.

Short Answer Exams ↓

Writing Short Answer Questions

Short answer questions are usually used to test knowledge that cannot be encapsulated within multiple choice questions. Answering short answer questions thus requires not only knowledge of concepts, but also a deeper understanding of relationships and ideas. These questions often ask you to integrate and apply what you have learned.

Short answer questions are often composed of multiple parts. When studying, anticipate a potential question and ask yourself ‘What else could be asked about this concept? How does this concept relate to another key concept in the course?’

Think about how certain categories relate to each other. For example:

• Cause and effect relationships
• Compare and contrast related concepts

Writing the exam

1. Remember to read carefully. When reading a question, underline important words in the instructions. Consider their meanings and what you’re being asked to do.

E.g. Discuss, define, explain, compare, analyze

1. Pay close attention to the number of marks a question is worth. That will indicate how many points or ideas you are expected to communicate. Getting part marks on a question is better than getting none, so be sure to write down what you know, even if it is not complete.
2. Do not include irrelevant or unrelated information to try and get more marks. Answer only what is asked. Giving irrelevant information can backfire, because it suggests that you misunderstood the question, or by making the relevant information more difficult to locate within your answer. Use a piece of scrap paper to jot down your ideas if the answer is not immediately clear.
3. If you are struggling with a question or using too much time, move on, but mark the question with a star or check mark and return to it when/if you have extra time at the end.
4. Do not hand in your exam until you have reviewed your answers thoroughly. Ensure you have given the best answers you can for every question (and remember to turn the page over, just in case).

Essay Exams ↓

Studying for essay exams

Memorizing

• Memorization is a skill that can be developed and learned. Rather than aiming for total recall of course material, identify important themes and topics, and use these to focus your understanding of specific facts and particular readings.

Organizing

• Organize important information (fundamental ideas, themes, central concerns, etc.) into patterns/broad categories, for example,
• postmodern theories; religion and the state; modern South Asian culture; 21st century health concerns etc. Engage with the material by creating summary sheets, booklets, mind maps, flow charts, or historical timelines that clarify these categories and identify connections between them.. Identifying relationships will also help with recall. Often questions will come up in class that can signal these relationships; for example,
• How do modern cultural patterns affect health in South Asia?
• Do religious values influence state policy?

Anticipating

• For each theme or issue, anticipate a few questions that could be on your exam. You could also study with peers to share potential essay questions.
• Think about how you would answer those questions and write brief answer outlines as part of your preparation for the exam.
• Even though you might not be able to guess the exact questions, writing brief answer outlines will give you a structured starting point going into the exam. You may be assigned questions with similar themes to the ones you anticipated, and you may only need to adapt your prepared outline, rather than recalling and organizing information on the spot.

Writing essay exam questions

Time Management

• Allocate your time wisely; do not spend too much time on a single essay to the detriment of others.

Reading the Questions

• Before writing, read over the exam question carefully. To be sure that you are answering the question correctly,
• Underline any terms in the essay question that you recognize from the course material.
• Check for essay question terms, such as “define,” “describe,” or “explain.” These all have separate meanings and will influence the way you approach the question. See Terms for Essay and Reports for definitions of these terms.
• Essay questions often have two parts. Be sure that you can recognize these situations and answer accordingly. For example:

Describe the terms dystopic and utopic, and how these affected the Indian political system after 1949.

Here, the important parts are:

• Dystopic and utopic as terms learned in the course.
• Affected, meaning impacted, influenced, and to act upon.
• Indian political system, which provides location and structure.
• After 1949, which provides context, in this case a time period.

The first question is 'Describe the terms dystopic and utopic'. This is divided from the second questions by a comma and the word “and.” To answer this part, describe each term separately. Describe means, “In a descriptive answer recount, characterize, sketch or relate in narrative form” the two terms.

The second question is how these affected the Indian political system after 1949. Here, you are asked to show the effects of the two terms, dystopic and utopic, on the Indian political system, but only after 1949. From this, it would be reasonable to think that 1949 is a key date in Indian political history.

Strategy

• Plan each essay with an outline of possible points. Including an outline can sometimes contribute to partial points if you run out of time to complete the question. It will also keep you focused on the answer that’s been requested, saving time for other questions on the exam.
• When answering your questions, write only what’s necessary and relevant; do not include irrelevant info simply to fill up your pages.
• Make sure your essay is 1) focused; 2) organized; and 3) supported.
• Don’t say something is true unless you can prove it by giving examples
• Double space your essay. This gives you room to make changes or additions. It also makes your handwriting easier to read during the grading process.

Structure

Introduction

• Get right to the point and state your thesis in the first sentence or two.
• Use your first paragraph to provide the outline of the essay, i.e., your main points and argument(s).

Body

• Begin each paragraph with a key point from the introduction. Remember to use topic sentences that will allow your reader to understand what you’ll be discussing in each paragraph.
• Develop each point thoroughly within your paragraph, providing examples and supporting information.
• Use transitions to connect your points; for example,

Additionally, as a result, first, second, third, therefore, because, or however.

• Avoid absolute statements (e.g. always, never, everyone, everywhere).

A qualified statement acknowledges complexity and exceptions, avoiding over-generalizations.

• Avoid guessing at exact details:

If you are not sure of an exact date, it is better to write: “toward the end of the 19th century”, than to incorrectly write a specific date; e.g., “in 1894.”

• As you write, you may think of a new sub-point or idea that contributes to a part of your essay that you have already written. If needed, write these points neatly in the margin or on a separate page with arrows, marks, numbers, or symbols that direct the reader to the appropriate statement at the appropriate point in your answer.

Conclusion

• Conclusions are often overlooked in exam essays - be sure that you include one!
• Summarize your thesis and main points in a sentence or two.
• Be sure to show significance as you would in any essay.

Review

• Once you have completed all questions, read over the essay question(s) and the essay. Make sure that you’ve answered all aspects of the question.
• Do your best to use proper conventions of language (e.g. avoid contractions and conform to academic style and grammar).
• Ensure any corrections are legible and that your handwriting is readable.

Exam Studying

The following steps are strategies for effectively studying for exams. They involve selecting key course information, ensuring that you are aware of possible topics for the exam, that you are establishing an environment conducive to studying effectively, and that you are developing strategies to manage your time and energy.  

1. Understand details about the exam.  

Ensure that you know the format (essay, multiple choice, case study, etc.), location, date, time, focus, and weighting of each test to help you budget your time and focus on the most important material.  

2. Set realistic and specific study goals and create a timeline.  

Schedule a daily amount of time to study for each course. Write down the time allocation, as well as what topic you will focus on for each study session. In this step, ensure you balance time allotted to studying with regular coursework and time required to leave time to rest, relax, and recharge, whatever that looks like for you. This step will also help you decide how soon to begin studying.  

3. Compile course material.  

Gather and organize all relevant course material (i.e., lecture notes, tutorials, texts, past assignments, and tests, etc.)  

 

4. Determine major sections, concepts, ideas and issues in the course.  

From your lectures and notes, decide on what portions of the course are of greater emphasis. How has the professor approached thinking about the material? The manner in which the course has been organized and presented usually reveals what’s important and how you will be tested on the material. Understanding how material from each lecture relates to the rest of the course will help you compartmentalize course topics. 

 

5. Locate and use additional study aids.  

These may include past exams, study guides, or reference material provided in class. Study aids can also include making a study group to discuss course material, assist each other with knowledge gaps, and quiz each other.  

6. Get in touch with your professor or TA.  

Office hours are an opportunity to discuss concepts, clarify ideas, and touch base with your professor. Similarly, your course might offer time to sit with your TA to go over previous assignments or questions related to the course. Ask your professor or TA about developing practice exam questions. 

7. Prioritize effective studying over efficient studying.  

Studying efficiently is less important than studying in a manner that effectively prepares you for your exam.Keep a separate document of sections or concepts you are finding difficult. Focus on them for a time, but don’t exhaust or frustrate yourself. Seek help from classmates, TAs, or your professor. Go back to this document later to review these concepts again.  

8. Be creative and follow your instincts.  

How do you learn best? Create study aids and work in an environment that works best for you. For example: 

• Re-writing notes in a consistent, organized format can be a good starting point.  

• Creating a display that uses colour-coding or other symbolism to organize concepts and relationships might be a good approach if you learn kinesthetically or visually.  

• Write terms and vocabulary in a ‘glossary,’ or make flashcards to review repetitively.  

• Approach and review the same material in a variety of ways. This can help you learn what works best for you while establishing connections and memories that will improve recall in an exam. Understanding connections between ideas often has a bigger impact on your success in exams than does rote memorization. 

9. Create a study group.  

Discussing and teaching course material to peers is one of the best ways to solidify your knowledge and to engage in meaningful discussion about the course. Form a group of people from the class that aren’t your friends. This will help keep your group focused on the work, rather than socializing.  

10. Anticipate possible questions. 

For each theme or topic, anticipate a few questions that could be on the exam. You could also study with peers to share potential questions. 

 Try to start early and remember that you are learning how to direct your efforts strategically to produce a more effective set of skills. A word of warning: many students place efficiency above effectiveness when it comes to studying. They expect to learn effectively even though they cut out important steps in understanding and storing their course knowledge. There is little point in being efficient if you aren't getting the results you want; as you continue to use your newly developing strategies, you will find ways to streamline your approach and what works best for you. 

Semicolons

The semicolon is used to connect two closely related ideas. Semicolons provide a stronger connection between ideas than periods and commas. There are three main ways a semicolon is used.  

Connecting two complete sentences  

Semicolons can connect two complete sentences that are closely related.  

Examples:  

• I went to the campus bookstore; the security guard told me it had just closed.  

• My roommate went to the market for me; he forgot to get the milk.  

Conjunctive adverbs  

Semicolons can be used with a conjunctive adverb to explain the relationship between two complete sentences that are closely related. (Conjunctive adverbs include: however, therefore, in addition, moreover, subsequently, consequently, instead, and additionally)  

Examples:  

• There was black mold found in the press box of Husky Stadium; consequently, university contractors are trying to eliminate the health and safety risk.  

• The Psychology professor wants to create a comprehensive analysis of the study habits of residence students; therefore, she will create and distribute an optional survey to every student living on campus.  

 

Lists with additional punctuation  

Semicolons can be used instead of a comma in a sentence where other types of punctuation are already being used. This is useful to differentiate items in a list.  

Example:  

• In the garage, there are eight 4-cylinder engines, all working; three 6-cylinder engines, of which only two work; and two 8-cylinder engines, none of which work.  

• The society’s executive council is composed of James Gowanlock, President; Courtney Purcell, Vice President; Adam Fournier, Secretary; William Novak, Treasurer; and Mariah Connor, Events Coordinator.   

Practice: Semicolons  

Correct the punctuation and insert semicolons where they are needed.  

1. Matthew wants to find out whether students prefer Tim Horton’s or Just Us!. Therefore, he is gathering data to find out.  

2. On eBay you can buy Tess of the d'Urbervilles, first edition, Jane Eyre, second edition, and Frankenstein, third edition.  

3. The beach is a perfect place to watch the sunset you can see the sun sink into the waves.  

4. To make for a better experience in the cafeteria the school is allowing students to vote for what food they want in addition they are expanding their gluten free menu.  

5. I forgot my umbrella this morning. When I got to school I was soaked.  

6. In this essay you were supposed to answer the questions “What the main plot?”, “What characters were involved?”, and “What narrative devices are used in the work?”  

7. I would enjoy going to the beach, however, I already have plans for this weekend.  

8. We checked the price of flying to Montreal, the train is much cheaper.  

9. This film has few redeeming qualities, in short, watching it was a waste of my time and money.  

10. This gentleman starts school in September, he will be five years old by then.  

Practice ↓

Correct the punctuation and insert semicolons where they are needed.

1. Matthew wants to find out whether students prefer Tim Horton’s or Just Us!. Therefore, he is gathering data to find out.

2. On eBay you can buy Tess of the d'Urbervilles, first edition, Jane Eyre, second edition, and Frankenstein, third edition.

3. The beach is a perfect place to watch the sunset you can see the sun sink into the waves.

4. To make for a better experience in the cafeteria the school is allowing students to vote for what food they want in addition they are expanding their gluten free menu.

5. I forgot my umbrella this morning. When I got to school I was soaked.

6. In this essay you were supposed to answer the questions “What the main plot?”, “What characters were involved?”, and “What narrative devices are used in the work?”

7. I would enjoy going to the beach, however, I already have plans for this weekend.

8. We checked the price of flying to Montreal, the train is much cheaper.

9. This film has few redeeming qualities, in short, watching it was a waste of my time and money.

10. This gentleman starts school in September, he will be five years old by then.

Answers ↓

1. Matthew wants to find out whether students prefer Tim Horton’s or Just Us!; therefore, he is gathering data to find out.
2. On eBay you can buy Tess of the d'Urbervilles, first edition; Jane Eyre, second edition; and Frankenstein, third edition.
3. The beach is a perfect place to watch the sunset; you can see the sun sink into the waves.
4. To make for a better experience in the cafeteria the school is allowing students to vote for what food they want; in addition they are expanding their gluten free menu.
5. I forgot my umbrella this morning; when I got to school I was soaked.
6. In this essay you were supposed to answer the questions “What the main plot?”; “What characters were involved?”; and “What narrative devices are used in the work?”
7. I would enjoy going to the beach; however, I already have plans for this weekend.
8. We checked the price of flying to Montreal; the train is much cheaper.
9. This film has few redeeming qualities; in short, watching it was a waste of my time and money.
10. This gentleman starts school in September; he will be five years old by then.

Answers: 

1. Matthew wants to find out whether students prefer Tim Horton’s or Just Us!; therefore, he is gathering data to find out. 

2. On eBay you can buy Tess of the d'Urbervilles, first edition; Jane Eyre, second edition; and Frankenstein, third edition. 

3. The beach is a perfect place to watch the sunset; you can see the sun sink into the waves.  

4. To make for a better experience in the cafeteria the school is allowing students to vote for what food they want; in addition they are expanding their gluten free menu.  

5. I forgot my umbrella this morning; when I got to school I was soaked. 

6. In this essay you were supposed to answer the questions “What the main plot?”; “What characters were involved?”; and “What narrative devices are used in the work?” 

7. I would enjoy going to the beach; however, I already have plans for this weekend. 

8. We checked the price of flying to Montreal; the train is much cheaper.  

9. This film has few redeeming qualities; in short, watching it was a waste of my time and money.  

10. This gentleman starts school in September; he will be five years old by then.  

Plain English

Plain English creates simple, clear communication and helps to avoid unnecessary grammar errors. While it is often used in business writing, plain English can be used in any instance to convey a specific point.  

How to achieve plain English  

Embellished language must be avoided to achieve plain English. Big, professional sounding words have a place, but they are not always useful as these often distract readers from the point being made. To check for embellished language read for words that can be simplified. Sentences with lofty words may begin to sound awkward and will stand out, especially when read aloud.  

Examples:  

Embellished: Upon John’s arrival, I aided him in producing his bags from the Jetta.  

Plain: When John arrived, I helped him get his bags from the car.  

Embellished: When conversing among your companions, utilize colloquial language.  

Plain: When talking with friends, use ordinary language.  

Practice ↓

Rewrite the following sentences in plain English:

1. Enclosed, please find a letter of reference for your perusal in selecting the appropriate candidate. ____

2. As per your request, we will forward your mail to your most recent place of residence. ____

3. I am cognizant of the fact that there will be a lecture with regard to grammar in my English class. ____

4. These skills will aid me in performing the task of omitting verbose language from my end of term paper. ____

5. Before physical education class commences, our teacher informs us that we have to provide her with the necessary currency for our class trip. ____

6. Back in my youthful days, when I was roughly as many years old as you are now, we did not have any cellular devices to send these short text based messages to acquaintances. ____

7. Superfluous and frivolous language can be too convoluted for your reader to comprehend. ____

8. There are a plethora of easier methods to convey the connotation of an idea. ____

9. I have been having these horrifying nighttime images appear to me in my sleep lately. ____

10. The feline was frightened by the canine. ____

Answers ↓

Enclosed is a letter of reference for your perusal i̶n̶ ̶s̶e̶l̶e̶c̶t̶i̶n̶g̶ ̶t̶h̶e̶ ̶a̶p̶p̶r̶o̶p̶r̶i̶a̶t̶e̶ ̶c̶a̶n̶d̶i̶d̶a̶t̶e̶.

As requested, we will forward your mail to your most recent address.

I am aware o̶f̶ ̶t̶h̶e̶ ̶f̶a̶c̶t̶ that there will be a lecture on grammar in my English class.

These skills will help me omit wordy language from my e̶n̶d̶ ̶o̶f̶ term paper.

Before gym class begins, our teacher informs us that we have to provide her with money for our class trip.

When I was your age, we did not have cellphones to send texts.

Complicated language can be too confusing for your reader to understand.

There are many methods to convey the meaning of an idea.

I have been having t̶h̶e̶s̶e̶ horrifying nightmares i̶n̶ ̶m̶y̶ ̶s̶l̶e̶e̶p̶ lately.

The dog scared the cat.

Numbers

In writing, numbers are used to communicate a variety of information. This includes currency, dates, percentages, and order of importance. Although there is no standard for using numbers in all styles of writing, here are some general guidelines.  

Spell out:  

Numbers between zero and nine three, eight  

Indefinite amounts  millions of people, over one billion  

General time periods  the Sixties, the fifteenth century  

Common fractions   one-fifth of the class, a two-thirds majority  

Universally accepted usage  the Twelve Apostles, the Five Pillars of Islam  

Fractions less than one   two-thirds, nine-tenths  

 

Use numerals for:  

Decimals  5.33, 10.25  

Divisions in books  Chapter 3, pages 43-90  

Addresses  11 Maple Lane  

Specific dates  January 23, 2011, the 21st of May  

Fractions greater than one  1 ½, 2 ¾  

Numbers 10 and up  23, 537  

Both numerals and words can be used for:  

Time of day:  6:00 a.m.; 5:30 p.m.; six o’clock  

Large numbers:  88 hundred, 7 thousand, 203 million, 5 dozens  

Exceptions to these rules:  

Use numerals when grouping a number between zero and nine with a larger number.  

• Example: Only 8 out of 40 people attended the meeting today.  

Use numerals when writing a precise measurement or mathematical function.  

• Examples: 4 cm wide, the remaining 7%, the 9th trial, a ratio of 16:1  

Spell out numbers that begin a sentence, title, or text heading.  

• Example: Forty-eight out of 70 people voted for the bylaw.  

Practice: Numbers 

Practice ↓

Correct the following sentences keeping the number rules in mind.

1. I do not get channel fifty-eight on my television.
2. When my 2 dogs went missing over 20 people went to look for them.
3. At 5 o’clock we served supper to 8 people.
4. She was born on January fourteenth, nineteen ninety one.
5. I have lived at fifteen Crescent Avenue for five years.
6. Only one and one-half hours remain.
7. Open your book to page four.
8. 23 days ago there was a ghost sighting in this courtyard.
9. There are one hundred twenty-five thousand, six hundred minutes in a year.
10. The sixth trial found that there was a nine percent success rate.

Answers ↓

1. I do not get channel 58 on my television.
2. When my two dogs went missing over 20 people went to look for them.
3. At five o’clock we served supper to eight people.
4. She was born on January 14, 1991.
5. I have lived at 15 Crescent Avenue for five years.
6. Only 1 ½ hours remain.
7. Open your book to page 4.
8. Twenty-three days ago there was a ghost sighting in this courtyard.
9. There are 125,600 minutes in a year.
10. The 6th trial found that there was a 9% success rate.

Answers: 

1. I do not get channel 58 on my television. 

2. When my two dogs went missing over 20 people went to look for them. 

3. At five o’clock we served supper to eight people. 

4. She was born on January 14, 1991. 

5. I have lived at 15 Crescent Avenue for five years. 

6. Only 1 ½ hours remain. 

7. Open your book to page 4. 

8. Twenty-three days ago there was a ghost sighting in this courtyard. 

9. There are 125,600 minutes in a year.  

10. The 6th trial found that there was a 9% success rate.  

Personal Statements and Letters of Intent

Most applications for scholarships, fellowships, and graduate or professional schools require what is known as a personal statement or letter of intent. While college transcripts, test scores, and letters of recommendation provide admission officers with important information about you, they do not provide a sense of who you are, how you see yourself, what you hope for yourself and for your work, how well you communicate, and so on. The personal statement or letter of intent is your chance to communicate who you are to the people who will read your application. A well-written, memorable essay can be a great asset to your application, while a poorly-written one can jeopardize your chances of being accepted to the institution or program of your choice.

Some applications state specific questions to which they want you to respond; others give more general directions or none at all. Almost all ask for an essay of a specific length, usually consisting of one or two pages. In short, you have at most a couple of pages to convince your readers that you are an intelligent, interesting, well-rounded person who would not only succeed in, but be an asset to, the program to which you are applying. Try to think of your personal statement as an opportunity – albeit a challenging one – to let people see the real you.

Determining content

When thinking about content, determine first what makes your life meaningful and interesting. Some people might write about volunteer experiences or extracurricular activities; others might remember feelings or events involving family, friends, community, beliefs, or childhood memories. Whatever you choose to write about, you should do more than simply tell a story. You should explain why these events, people, or memories define who you are. The people who will read your application will not be interested in the community in which you grew up unless it is clear to them how that community shaped you as a person.

Avoid trying to write an autobiography. You cannot include everything that has been of significance in your life. If you try, you will simply be writing a summary of events without exploring their meaning. Make a list of what you think is most important; then read through it several times, eliminating all but the most important things. Note: always think carefully before writing about personal problems that you have had. Although these events might have shaped who you are as a person, they may have the unintended effect of embarrassing your reader or making them uncomfortable. Always think of the possible impacts on the reader while deciding what to write about and how to write about it.

It is occasionally advisable to address a point in your application that needs explanation. For example, you may have had a spell of poor grades. If you have a good reason for the low grades, you can help your cause by offering it. However, you must somehow offer your explanation without sounding like you are making excuses. Try to see a redemptive element in your temporary weakness. Perhaps bad or trying circumstances have led to this fall, but has taught you something about human nature, or taught you to respect someone close to you for the way he dealt with serious illness or bereavement. If you find it necessary to describe something painful, focus on the positive.

A good personal statement or letter of intent balances a discussion of your past experience with an explanation of your goals, plans, and aspirations. Do not write an essay entirely about what you plan to do, but do not ignore your plans either. If possible, show the continuity between your past experience and your future plans.

One final piece of advice: before determining the content of your personal statement or letter of intent, talk with the people who are writing your letters of recommendation. If they are well enough acquainted with you, they may be able to spot weaknesses in your application and give you some direction. They might also agree to address in their letters the parts of your application that raise questions, thus freeing you to write your personal statement or letter of intent without having to address these issues.

Writing the personal statement or letter of intent

Begin working on your essay well in advance of the deadline. The two-page personal statement or letter of intent will take more time and will be harder than you think. Allow more than enough time for brainstorming, starting over, drafting, giving the statement to friends and advisors to read, revising, and for final editing.

Answer the questions thoroughly and thoughtfully, and obey all of the parameters that you are given. Remember: your application will be one among hundreds. You do not want to waste the reader's time by giving them information they do not require. If your application materials ask you to answer a specific question, then answer that question exactly. Resist the urge to write just one master essay that responds to some approximation of all of the different questions. If there are specific questions, then clearly the readers are looking for specific information; if your essay does not give them that information, they will be less than impressed. Moreover, if the application specifies a one-page maximum, do not write two pages or half of a page. Respect the limits of the application form, and use the space you are given to its full advantage.

Keep in mind the purpose of your essay. Remember that the other parts of your application will tell the review committee about your schoolwork, extra-curricular activities, and intellectual ability. You do not need to repeat things listed elsewhere on the application. Nor do you need to try to prove that you are smart. You should have two goals: first, to show that you can communicate clearly and easily; and second, to convey a sense of whom you are within the parameters of the questions asked.

Research

Do your homework. Applications may ask specifically why their program is ideal for you, or why you are ideal for their program. In order to answer this question, you must find out everything you can about the program: its strengths, its weaknesses, its faculty, its structure, and so on. Even if a school does not ask specifically why you are interested in its program, if you have researched the schools to which you are applying, you can use your knowledge and preferences for these programs to your advantage in your application essay.

Structure

In order to give your essay coherence, look for and bring out any common threads between the few topics you choose to cover. Work out a logical structure for the essay, and introduce the major themes early enough to give direction to the entire essay. Like

any other piece of good writing, your personal statement should not cause the reader any disorientation or confusion.

The opening paragraph is crucial. You may be advised to use the opening paragraph to grab attention. Writers commonly use questions, quotes, or anecdotes in the opening paragraphs, but do not feel compelled to follow this advice. The opening paragraph not only grabs attention, but also establishes the tone for the rest of the essay; therefore, this paragraph must suit both your topic and your style. If you make a joke in your first line, but the rest of the statement shows that you really do not have a sense of humor, then the first line will seem incongruous. Moreover, you do not want the first sentence or paragraph to overpower the rest of what you have to say - either with its wit, its profundity, or its vividness. In short, the opening paragraph must complement the rest of the essay.

Similarly, when thinking about creative approaches to structuring your essay, use good judgment. You might wish to experiment with structures that are more interesting and creative than the obvious ones (the chronological, the topical, and so on). A creative approach will make your essay stand out from the pack. Keep in mind, though, that all of the above advice about consistency also applies to your essay's overall structure. Finally, make sure the creative touches you make throughout your essay are indeed "creative." The problem of writing an interesting, attention-grabbing personal statement has been around for a long time. Make sure that you do not fall victim to cliché.

Style and tone

The personal statement or letter of intent must not be abstract or vague in any way. Though the personal statement deals in abstractions, one of your greatest challenges is to write about these topics without falling into cliché, platitude, or generalization. Try to keep your writing as concrete as possible, using examples and images. Avoid the metaphorical and the grandiose.

When explaining the significance of events in your life, watch your tone. You should be able to discuss something thoughtfully and still resist the temptation to "blow things up," or to invest them with too much meaning. Be wary of inflated or melodramatic prose that will seem nonsensical to any sensible reader. If you are judicious in your use of language, your reader will be impressed.

Choose your words with care and make every one of them work hard. Since you have very little space, it is important to write concisely. Use the correct word, not the one with the most syllables. You do not have to trot out vocabulary to prove your intellectual superiority; write with taste. Avoid pretension, arrogance, and melodrama. Be frank and mature.

Revision

Once you have written a draft, have people read it – friends, family members, or professors. You are the author, but input from people who know you can often help you see how your statement may fall short of adequately describing you. Other readers might also be able to tell you when parts of your statement are too abstract, obscure, or summary.

When you have produced a draft with which you are satisfied, sit down with a dictionary and grammar reference and proofread it. Running a spell-check on your

computer will not identify all the errors. Your statement must not have misspelled or misused words, and no grammatical errors. You should follow even those grammatical rules that are no longer strictly enforced.

Adapted from

Julie Kalish, ,J. (2004). Graduate applications. Institute for Writing and Rhetoric. Dartmouth College. Retrieved from www.dartmouth.edu/~writing/materials/student/tasks/graduate.shtml

Report Formats

An overview of the how, what, and why in organizing different types of reports 

How do you select a format and use it? 

• Purposes and types of report formats 

• Parts of a report 

• Specific advice for writing reports 

What is format? 

• A plan of organization 

• A means of structuring material 

• A framework for arranging information  

Why should you use a format? 

• To present your report as clearly and as concisely as possible to one reader or to a variety of audiences 

• To signal the type of information being presented 

• To enhance the presentation 

Your readers: 

• Before you write a report, first consider your readers. How you format your report will depend on your readers’ goals and needs. Ask yourself the following: 

• Who are my readers? Remember there may be more readers than you expect. For example, a feasibility report for your boss may be given to someone higher up in the company and a research report may be used by another researcher years later. 

• Why is the report needed? 

• What information do they need to get from this report?  

General report format guidelines: 

When you write a report, you will want to make it easy to read and understand. Here are some guidelines to apply to any report you write: 

• Use lists: Whenever you can, help your reader by using lists. Give your lists visual emphasis by bullets. 

• Use headings and subheadings: Use headings and subheadings to guide your reader through the organization of the report and list them in the table of contents. Each section should have a clear topic statement to let the reader know what will be included in the section. 

• Use clear typefaces, such as Times New Roman or Arial: Avoid using more than one typeface in a document. Bold section headings for emphasis. 

• Use white space to enhance your information: Dense blocks of text are difficult to read and will make it more difficult for your readers to find the information they need. For further information on this topic, see the OWL resource on document design, HATS. 

Other guidelines for writing reports: 

• Write the body of your report first—before you write the abstract: Most report writers prefer to save the mechanical elements, such as the title page and the table of contents, for the last step. 

• Maintain consistent structure: once you determine the structure you will use, keep using it consistently throughout the report. This will make it easier for your readers to understand your report. 

• Choose carefully the voice, mood, and tense: These depend on the rhetorical situation. Consider the expectations of your readers and the needs of your readers. For lab reports and long formal reports, most companies and most teachers prefer that you use the third person passive: "A test was run..." NOT "I ran the test..." 

Past tense is used for explaining procedures, and present tense is used for generalizations and for stating what the results show. 

Questions to ask yourself before handing your reports to your readers 

General checklist 

• Did you begin by asking yourself: Who will read the report?; What do they want to know?; How should the report be structured? 

• Have you planned and prepared the report with the reader in mind? 

• Did you follow the format specified in your course or by your company? 

• Did you use enough headings and make them in a clear hierarchy? 

• Is the important information easy to follow? 

• Does the document use the most appropriate typefaces, sizes, styles or alignments? 

• Does the document have enough white space? 

• Would you be willing to have your competence in your field judged on the basis of how you presented this report? 

Informal lab report 

• Has the introduction explained the problem you worked on and the purpose of your work? 

• Did you adequately describe your apparatus and procedures if you were asked to do so or had a reason to do so? 

• Does the body clearly indicate the data obtained, and have you discussed and evaluated your data? 

• If you were asked to do so, did you include useful, clear conclusions and recommendations? 

Short memo report 

• Does the heading contain all the relevant information such as to, from, date, subject, and so on? 

• Is your subject stated clearly and concisely, with the most important words at the beginning of the subject line? 

• Does your introductory statement include the general problem (the “big picture”), the specific question or task being dealt with in your memo, a clear explanation of why the report is being submitted or what it is intended to do, and how significant it is to the reader? 

• Have you tried to persuade the reader of the reliability of your methods? 

• Have you presented your findings or results clearly and concisely with the most important results first? 

• Have you put less important matter separately in an attachment or appendix? 

• Have you discussed the significance of the results from the reader’s viewpoint? 

• If your report is supposed to include your conclusions and recommendations, are they emphasized and stated clearly (e.g. numbered list)? 

• Have you suggested some specific steps the reader could take to act on your recommendations? 

• Have you used headings to help your reader survey and locate information on the page? 

• Have you marked key points? 

• If your purpose was to persuade, have you placed your strongest argument first? Is the report as concise as you can possibly make it? 

Abstract 

• Does it summarize the main points and include specific results? 

• Is it clear and concise? 

• Is it self-sufficient? (Can it be read without having to refer to the body of the report?) 

• Is there any recommendations you can supply here? 

Figures and tables 

• Are the figures located wherever readers would find them easily helpful or persuasive? 

• Do all the figures and tables have numbers and captions? 

• If the figures and tables are referred to in the text, are page numbers included? 

• Are the figures and tables correctly labeled? 

• Are the figures and tables explained or interpreted adequately? 

• Are the figures and tables listed in the table of contents or in separate lists following the table of contents? 

• Do the figures look attractive and easy to read? 

• Are all units in the figures and tables clearly indicated? 

Source:  

Cember, E., Heavilon A., Seip, M., Shi, L., Brizee, A. (2010) Handbook on Report Formats. The OWL at Purdue. Purdue: Purdue University. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/726/01/ ; http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/726/04/ 

Film Reading

Formal analysis 

Formal analysis (textual analysis) seeks to understand how form relates to meaning. 

Terminology  

shot: a view provided by an uninterrupted run of the camera 

sequence: a segment of the film 

frame/framing: the view that we see and the act of constructing it 

shot size: close-up (CU) head and shoulders; medium shot (MS) waist up; wide/long  shot (WS/LS) full figure 

camera angles: high, low, neutral 

camera height: high, low, standard 

camera movement 

• side to side: pan or track 

• up or down: tilt or pedestal 

shot duration: the length of the shot (consider in relation to others in the sequence) 

mise-en-scène: elements that are put in the frame 

• props 

• set and décor 

• lighting 

• costume and make-up 

• staging: actors, movement, performance 

• consider the overall composition of the frame 

editing: consider the significance of shots in relation to each other 

sound: is it complimentary or contrapuntal to what we see? 

Writing conventions in formal analysis 

Use “the viewer.” Avoid “you.” 

e.g., Paro is first introduced to the viewer in close-up. This suggests to the viewer that… 

Formal analysis assumes that films can’t make the viewer think or feel anything. Films are persuasive (i.e., they use rhetorical appeals). 

Avoid: 

The lighting makes the viewer think that… 

Use: 

The lighting suggests that… 

The lighting implies that… 

The lighting conveys the impression that… 

The lighting aligns the character with… 

The lighting associates the character with… 

Be sure to explain links between claims, support (evidence), as well as the implications of what you notice. 

Using Ethos Logos and Pathos

Examples of Ethos, Logos and Pathos: 

Example of Ethos:  

"I will end this war in Iraq responsibly, and finish the fight against al Qaeda and the Taliban in Afghanistan. I will rebuild our military to meet future conflicts. But I will also renew the tough, direct diplomacy that can prevent Iran from obtaining nuclear weapons and curb Russian aggression. I will build new partnerships to defeat the threats of the 21st century: terrorism and nuclear proliferation; poverty and genocide; climate change and disease. And I will restore our moral standing, so that America is once again that last, best hope for all who are called to the cause of freedom, who long for lives of peace, and who yearn for a better future." 

Democratic Presidential Candidate Acceptance Speech by Barack Obama. August 28th, 2008. 

Example of Pathos: 

"I am not unmindful that some of you have come here out of great trials and tribulations. Some of you have come fresh from narrow jail cells. And some of you have come from areas where your quest -- quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality. You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive. Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed." 

I Have a Dream by Martin Luther King Jr. August 28th, 1963. 

Example of Logos: 

"However, although private final demand, output, and employment have indeed been growing for more than a year, the pace of that growth recently appears somewhat less vigorous than we expected. Notably, since stabilizing in mid-2009, real household spending in the United States has grown in the range of 1 to 2 percent at annual rates, a relatively modest pace. Households' caution is understandable. Importantly, the painfully slow recovery in the labor market has restrained growth in labor income, raised uncertainty about job security and prospects, and damped confidence. Also, although consumer credit shows some signs of thawing, responses to our Senior Loan Officer Opinion Survey on Bank Lending Practices suggest that lending standards to households generally remain tight." 

The Economic Outlook and Monetary Policy by Ben Bernanke. August 27th, 2010. 

Source: http://pathosethoslogos.com/ 

Writing Long Papers

Creating outlines for long essays is done in much the same ways as for short essays; the difference lies not in the number of points, but rather in the depth of each point. When writing long papers, think of each section as a small essay on its own. This will suggest what sub-points should be included to best support the thesis of each section. The process can be repeated indefinitely until the desired length or level of detail is achieved.  

Breakdown 

The Five-Paragraph Essay 

• A basic, five-paragraph essay format is an excellent place to begin an outline, even for a long essay. 

• Imagine a long paper scaled down to the level of an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. 

• For this illustration, these body paragraphs are called “Level One” 

The First Level 

• After determining the overall arrangement of the essay, focus on the first topic “paragraph.” 

• Imagine that this section will be its own independent essay. 

• Consider how it will be introduced, what the thesis of this section will be, and what mapping scheme would be appropriate. 

• Develop an outline of this sub-essay in the same way as the overview. 

• Think of these body sections as “Level Two.” Continue this process with each of the three body sections.  

The Next Level 

• Once each body section has been given a full essay outline, repeat the process for each of them, this time focusing on the “Level Two” body paragraphs.  

• This process can be repeated, with each level adding depth and length to the overall essay. 

The Final Level 

• At the bottom of this exercise are the individual paragraphs. 

• Like the levels above them, each paragraph will include: 

• A self-contained claim supported with evidence 

• An explanation of the evidence 

• A brief conclusion 

Concise Language

Concise language will help prevent readers from getting confused with the meaning of each sentence. Word choice is crucial in achieving concise language. To use concise language, choose effective words that get the point across economically to avoid wordiness and vagueness.  

Long phrases can often be shortened to avoid confusion by providing more accuracy. Here are some examples of wordy phrases and their concise counterparts:  

         Wordy and unclear   Economic and concise 

During the month of April     In April  

Despite the fact that  Although  

At this point in time  Now  

In advance of  Before   

In the near future   Soon  

In the event that  If  

During that time  While  

In my opinion  I think  

Additionally, it is best for readers to have precise words in order to avoid confusion through vagueness. Below are examples of vague words to be avoided.  

etc.  many everyone 

a lot  some everything 

most       

Practice ↓

Rewrite the following paragraph using concise language:

I applied for a job during the month of October. I did this despite that fact that I am moving in the near future. In my opinion, I will be hired for the reason that I am a very hard worker. I have many skills which can benefit employers in the event that I was to be hired. I have submitted my résumé everywhere, hoping that a lot of people phone me for an interview. The last time I applied for jobs a lot of the people did not call me back. However, I have spent a lot of time updating my résumé. I have also worked on editing my cover letter despite the fact that not all places I have been applying to require a cover letter. At this point in time, I hope my luck has changed as I need a job which will start in the near future.

Answers ↓

I applied for a job in October although I am moving soon. I think I will be hired because I am a very hard worker. I have many skills which can benefit employers if I am hired. I have submitted my résumé everywhere, hoping that the managers phone me for an interview. The last time I applied for jobs half of employers did not call me back. However, I have spent this past week updating my résumé. I have also worked on editing my cover letter even though not all places I have been applying to require a cover letter. Currently, I hope my luck has changed as I need a job which starts soon.

Colons

A colon is used after a complete sentence to indicate a list or explanation will follow. The information after a colon adds more detail and clarity to the sentence before the colon.  

Use colons to:  

1. introduce a complete sentence or a series of words closely related to the preceding sentence.  

Example:   

• There are five universities I am considering for my Master’s degree: Victoria, Alberta, Ottawa, Queen’s, and Dalhousie.  

2. introduce a list when signaling words are present. Some signaling words include these and the following.  

Example:  

• Please do the following:  

o sweep,  

o wash the dishes,  

o water the plant, and  

o feed the fish.  

3. indicate emphasis and illustration.  

Examples:  

• Lisa's return to Casablanca could mean only one thing: trouble.  

• There is one thing I can never get used to seeing on my front porch: a bear.  

4. introduce a long quotation after a complete sentence.  

Example:  

• The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime article on Human Rights and Workers’ Rights (2011)* describes the causes and consequences of human trafficking:  

Inequalities in income, education and opportunities are major root causes of human trafficking, inducing many to migrate to seek for a better life. Thousands of migrants instead become victims of labour exploitation, a new form of slavery that occurs on a massive scale. Due to growing inequalities in destination countries, this exploitation is increasingly seen as 'normal'. 

* Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2011. Protect human rights and workers’ rights to end labour exploitation Retrieved from: http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/2011/June/protect-human-rights-and-workers-rights-to-end-labour-exploitation.htm 

5. Indicate that a full sentence explains more about content in the first sentence when a coordinating conjunction is not used. If one sentence follows the colon do not capitalize the first word following the colon. If more than one sentence follows the colon, capitalize the first word of following the colon.  

Examples:  

• I love to read fantasy novels: Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban is currently my favourite novel.  

• I will never forget something my grandmother always told me: It does not matter if you screw up. What matters is that you learn and move on.  

Practice ↓

Correct punctuation and insert colons where they are needed.

1. To make cookies you need the following flour, eggs, sugar, and butter.

2. There is only one thing left to do, pack.

3. Take these items with you to the beach a book, a hat, and sunscreen.

4. Matthew Brothers gathered data and found that the student population at Saint Mary’s University prefers Tim Horton’s over Just Us!.
   The data shows that Tim Horton’s is preferred because of its lower prices and variety of snacks. Although Just Us is fair trade its lack of selection outweighs the feel good vibe of omitting the middle man. The data also shows that Tim Horton’s provides faster service which is important for students trying to get to class on time.

5. You taught me how to do the following swim, kayak, and fish.

6. To do,

   • clean clutter off desk,

   • sweep the kitchen, and

   • feed the cats.

7. There is only one thing you need to remember when considering wearing socks with sandals, no.

8. Pick one type of sushi to try out California roll, Philadelphia roll, or Dynamite roll.

9. Consider these alternatives steal the loaf of bread and feel guilty or starve.

10. It is too bad she is only interested in one thing, power.

Answers ↓

1. To make cookies you need the following: flour, eggs, sugar, and butter.

2. There is only one thing left to do: pack.

3. Take these items with you to the beach: a book, a hat, and sunscreen.

4. Matthew Brothers gathered data and found that the student population at Saint Mary’s University prefers Tim Horton’s over Just Us!:

   The data shows that Tim Horton’s is preferred because of its lower prices and variety of snacks. Although Just Us is fair trade its lack of selection outweighs the feel good vibe of omitting the middle man. The data also shows that Tim Horton’s provides faster service which is important for students trying to get to class on time.

5. You taught me how to do the following: swim, kayak, and fish.

6. To do:

   • clean clutter off desk,
   • sweep the kitchen, and
   • feed the cats.

7. There is only one thing you need to remember when considering wearing socks with sandals: no.

8. Pick one type of sushi to try out: California roll, Philadelphia roll, or Dynamite roll.

9. Consider these alternatives: steal the loaf of bread and feel guilty or starve.

10. It is too bad she is only interested in one thing: power.

Capital Letters

Capital letters are used in a variety of ways. Usually, capital letters are used when the meaning is specific and lowercase letters are used when the meaning is general. Below are rules for when to use capital letters.  

First word of a sentence:  

Always capitalize the first letter of the word in a sentence.  

Proper nouns:  

Always capitalize names of specific people and places such as Jessica and Mic Mac Mall. Also, always capitalize names of organizations like Saint Mary’s University.  

Titles of people when their name is included:  

Prime Minister Stephen Harper  

Countries, nationalities, and languages:  

Japan, Canadian, Latin 

Geographic locations:  

I live in the Maritimes.  

Week days, months, and holidays:  

Monday, January, Christmas  

Periods and events in history:  

The War on Terror began with the 9/11 attacks.  

Titles and headings:  

This includes: titles of essays, films, books, newspapers, and poems.  

Opening and closing remarks of a letter:  

Best, Sincerely, Cheers  

Specific courses:  

The Modern Novel is an excellent course.  

---

Practice ↓

Correct the capitalization in the following paragraph.

On march 5th, ryan and I attended a Seminar at Saint Mary’s university. The Speaker, dr. tyron, presented his recent Archeological Finds from off the Coast of greece. He had a thick french accent so i found it hard to understand him, but i was able to make out his references to the greek islands: ios, santorini, and naxos. since he has returned he has Been busy taking an Online Classics course: ancient greek mythology. I learned many new facts about Archeology from dr. Tyron and i look forward to buying his new novel, “the past digger,” to learn even more.

Answers ↓

On March 5th, Ryan and I attended a seminar at Saint Mary’s University. The speaker, Dr. Tyron, presented his recent archeological finds from off the coast of Greece. He had a thick French accent so I found it hard to understand him, but I was able to make out his references to the Greek islands: Ios, Santorini, and Naxos. Since he has returned he has been busy taking an online Classics course: Ancient Greek Mythology. I learned many new facts about Archeology from Dr. Tyron and I look forward to buying his new novel, “The Past Digger,” to learn even more.